First Year of Development
322 – The Annual, 2010-11
by Dr. Carmen L. Battaglia
INTRODUCTION
Specific experiences during the first year of life have been used to improve the development of puppies and young dogs with good success. The techniques most often used to stimulate, socialize and enrich their lives include touching, regular handling, trips to schools, parks, shopping centers, social events and ball games along with the beginning exercises in obedience, rally and agility. These experiences create opportunities to interact with strangers, new places and other dogs. The nature of these varied and diverse experiences collectively have been shown to influence development and the ability to cope with real life situations. The owners of young dogs with busy schedules often try to combine activities as a short cut to their development. Some jog with their dog, others toss a ball and play fetch. These activities might improve a dog’s attitude and body conditioning which on the surface may be useful because they provide exercise and include rewards but they are not good substitutes for socialization and enrichment trips outside the kennel to public places where new and different smells, interactions and opportunities to investigate are possible.
Those who train dogs or specialize in canine behavior use the word “reactivity” to describe dogs that lunge repeatedly, bark furiously at the sight of another dog, spin out of control and act oblivious to efforts to intercede. These responses are not normal according to Dr. Dodman (2009), a veterinary behaviorist whose book Dogs Barking Badly uses the term “reactivity” to describe dogs that are highly excitable. Dodman says it is normal for dogs to become aroused or excited when their owners come home or when they see a cat, squirrel, and another animal or when there is a knock on the door. This arousal can lead to barking, the raising of their tail and ears, and the bristle of their coat. Miller (2009) reported that the tendency to be aroused in the presence of other dogs is heritable and that those who do not handle stress and show reactive behavior are thought to be different from well-adjusted dogs. It is easy to assume that dogs that spin out of control, become frantic, and are not easily controlled may have had a less than ideal early life. Miller (2009) also reported that while this kind of behavior is often associated with aggression, the underlying cause may be a lack of adequate stimulation and socialization during the first year of life.
THREE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Developing puppies is a popular subject among breeders and the general dog loving public. How to develop them is a little like the question of how to raise and develop children. Myths abound when data are scarce. Some of the most reliable information was compiled by J. P. Scott in the 1950s and later by Scott, Fuller and Fox in the 1970s. Once birth occurs canines grow and learn rapidly, especially during their first year of life when their nervous system develops and stores information that is of inestimable use at a later date. The novel experiences and stimulations associated with the first year of life have been used to explain differences observed between individuals and their ability to respond to the more difficult tasks required of adults.
Researchers have demonstrated that the absence or the lack of adequate amounts of stimulation during the first year of life will generally produce negative and undesirable results. Scott, Fuller, Fox, Whitney and Dunbar were some of the early researchers who studied the importance of early life. Scott and Fuller (1965) at Bar Harbor, Maine described early life as a “critical” period and called it “a special time in life when a small amount of experience will produce a great effect on later behavior” (p. 117). They concluded that the effect of contact is inversely proportional to age, i.e. the younger the animal the greater the effect. Whitney (1975) described a neonatal period and said began at birth to 11 days. Dunbar (1985) reported that newborn puppies are able to respond/reflex to certain stimuli with limited motor capacities and live in a “sensory void” but are responsive to touch and movement. Fox (1972) conducted studies on the effects of stimulation and noted that Dr. Jack Werboff, while at the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine found that “pups during the first few days of life can actually learn to discriminate between skin sensations differing in texture” and noted that, if given a choice, will choose to crawl on a soft rather than a rough surface. In another study of newborns, Kelley (2005) demonstrated that despite their level of immaturity, pups fed a diet enhanced with DHA showed significant increases in their levels of learning. Hoffman, Kelley, and Waltz, (2004) demonstrated that newborn puppies are susceptible to different levels of dietary DHA which affect their brain and eyes. Their study involved three colonies of bitches (a, ab, b) dietary DHA from proestrus until the puppies were weaned. Post-weaned puppies were fed the same diet as their dams. Using an experimental and control group, testing began at nine weeks of age. As shown in Figure 1, those fed the enhanced diet with DHA (group b) fed were found to be significantly more trainable than the control group (a). Similar findings have been reported in other species. Hamazaki, (1999) using mice, found that by varying the DHA dietary supplementation, stress-related behavior responses (anxiety index) were lowered.
Different subscripts denote significant difference at P < 0.05. Holst et. al., (2002) found that postnatal oxytocin treatment or stroking lowered blood pressure in young dogs. Strandberg (2005) studied German Shepherd Dogs and tested broad behavioral traits to determine if there is a maternal or litter influence on four traits (playfulness, chase-proneness, cupidity/fearfulness and aggression). He found that littermates seem to have a major influence on the development of these four traits and concluded that there was a substantial additive genetic variation and that the dam had little influence on her pups (genetically and environmentally) for these traits. Battaglia (2009) reviewed the literature focusing on the importance of the first twelve months of life and found that the first year of life could be divided into three time periods which are shown in Figure 2. He identified three periods based on age and the kinds of stimulation and exposure provided young pups. Based on these differences, Battaglia called the first period of life the primary period because of its importance to the developmental process. He also noted that despite their level of immaturity, early neurological stimulating (ENS) exercises during the first three weeks improved their development.
One of the more notable studies that focused on the primary period was conducted by the United States military. They used ENS exercises in conjunction with their special canine breeding program which they called “Bio Sensor” (1968 – 1976). The purpose of this program was to provide dogs in support of the troops for the Viet Nam War. The press called this program the “Super Dog” program based on the performance of these dogs during the war. The “Bio Sensor” program used a window of time (3-16 days of life) as the period when ENS exercises could benefit a newborn even though pups at this age lack regular brain waves, motor coordination and normal vision (Fox 1971). It is well-known that newborn pups are unable to sustain many normal body functions such as digestion, urination and defecation without some outside stimulation from their dam.
The ENS exercises used in the “Bio Sensor” program are listed in Table 1. The exercises used were administered once each day and each exercise lasted for 3- 5 seconds. Pictures of these exercises are shown in Appendix A.
Table 1
STIMULATING EXERCISES
? Tactile stimulation (between toes)
? Head held erect
? Head pointed down
? Supine position
? Thermal stimulation
Breeders who wish to give their pups these benefits (Table 2) should be reminded that the window for ENS exercises is time sensitive and limited. It begins on the third day and ends on the sixteenth day of life. Normal handling should be continued during this time. Since over-stimulation can be harmful, it is not recommended. Therefore, each of the exercises shown in Table 1 and pictured in Appendix A should be given only once each day and they should not exceed the recommended 3-5 seconds.
Table 2
BENEFITS OF EARLY NEUROLOGICAL STIMULATION
? Improved cardiovascular performance (heart rate)
? Stronger heart beat
? Stronger adrenal glands
? More tolerance to stress
? Greater resistance to disease
Before using the ENS exercises it is recommended that the full text of the article “Early Neurological Stimulation” be reviewed. The text can be found at www.breedingbetterdogs.com.
Battaglia (2009) noted the limitations of newborn pups and their level of immaturity and summarized it in Table 3. Notice that it is not until the fourth week that pups are able to generate enough body heat to sleep by themselves instead of in piles. As they begin to develop, other body functions begin to emerge which lessen the need for outside help and assistance by their dam. Her importance fades with time.
SOCIALIZATION PERIOD
Most experts recognize the emergence of a second important time which has been called the period of socialization. By definition, socialization is taken to mean the “process of forming relationships between dogs and human beings” (Pfaffenberger, 1963c). Based on his studies at Bar Harbor, Pfaffenberger reported that, as pups near their fourth week of life, they enter the second period of development which is called the period of socialization. This period begins at about four weeks of age and lasts until a pup is twelve to fourteen weeks of age. Considerable amounts of research have focused on this period along with the effects of rearing young animals under varying degrees of sensory and social stimulation and isolation. Some of the first to investigate the effects of stimulation and the lack of it during this second period of development were Pfaffenberger, Scott, Fuller and Fox. Pfaffenberger (1963b) reported that puppies start to learn at three weeks of age and that “from seven weeks to sixteen weeks they are going to learn the things which will make their character as adults”. Scott and Fuller (1965a) showed that social relationships during the second period of development can influence other behaviors and can be used as the framework within which tests of performance can take place. Fox (1972) showed that pups not socialized or given opportunities to explore areas away from their kennel when given free choice preferred to stay in their kennels while other littermates who were given only small amounts of outside stimulation between five and eight weeks of age were found to be inquisitive and very active. Fox noted that when kennel doors were left open, the pups exposed to outside influences came bounding out, while littermates who were not exposed to new and different experiences remained behind. The non-stimulated pups would typically be fearful of unfamiliar objects and generally preferred to withdraw rather than investigate. Even the well-bred pups of superior pedigrees would not explore or leave their kennels, and many were found difficult to train as adults. Those not socialized acted as if they had become institutionalized, preferring the routine and safe environment of their kennel to the stimulating world outside their immediate place of residence.
Understanding and measuring early development was studied by Fox (1971) who found that the Electrical Encephalogram (EEG) was ideal for measuring the electrical activity in the brain of puppies because of the extreme sensitivity the brain has to changes in excitement, emotional stress, muscle tension, changes in oxygen and breathing. Using the EEG, Fox (1971) showed that pups and kittens, when given early stimulating exercises, mature at faster rates and performed better in certain problem-solving tests than non-stimulated littermates.
Pfaffenberger (1963) noted that there were no differences in the attitudes and attachments “between the puppies who were raised in the puppy nursery and those who were raised in the acre fields”. His work adds evidence to the notion that the environment has little or no affect on a puppy until it is twenty-one days of age. Fox, Scott, Fuller and others support the belief that a lack of early stimulation or adequate socialization generally results in unacceptable behavior and often produces undesirable aggression, excessiveness, fearfulness, sexual inadequacy and indifference toward partners.
ENRICHMENT PERIOD
Based on his review of the literature, Battaglia (2009), also noted that when different kinds of stimulation are given during each of these three periods of development they can be used to produce notable results. This led him to call the third period of development the enrichment period and noted that it overlaps the period of socialization. It is different from the primary period in length of time and in the age of pup and its level of development. Generally speaking, the enrichment period begins at the fourth month and lasts until the twelfth month of age.
During the enrichment period young dogs are advancing toward their adult stage of life. In many respects, the enrichment period can be viewed as an extension of the socialization period which can last a lifetime. It is a time when new and different experiences can be used to enhance the behavior of young adults in order to develop them into better-than-average adults. Many studies have been used to show the importance of the third period of development and to demonstrate its influence on the performance of those selected to perform the more difficult tasks as an adult. Scott and Fuller (1965a) concluded that social relationships and experiences during the first year of life can influence later behavior and performance. Hubrecht, (1995) and Boxall, et al., (2004) showed that the experiences given dogs during the enrichment period typically involve exposure to a wide variety of interesting, novel and exciting activities with regular opportunities to freely investigate, manipulate, and interact with humans and other species. The importance of these experiences has been reported by those who breed for competition, military, police, therapy, guide dogs and search and rescue work. For example, the breeders of search and rescue (SAR) dogs typically expose their young dogs to as many kinds of public places as possible where they are encouraged to interact with a variety of challenging experiences (Otto, 2004). Young dogs were studied by Slabbert (2001) to see if extended maternal contact (12 weeks) and the opportunity to observe their mothers perform a learned skill (searching for narcotics) would influence learning this skill. He found that pups allowed seeing their trained mothers work performed better when tested as adults. Pups separated from their trained mothers at six weeks and those left with an untrained mother up to the age of 12 weeks had significantly lower performance ratings when tested. Slabbert’s study also showed that early separation from the mother has a negative effect on physical conditioning, weight gain and susceptibility to disease. By testing the behavioral differences between separated and non-separated pups at six weeks of age, he was also able to show that separation had no effect on temperament or socialization to humans, provided that the pups had daily human contact. His study demonstrates the importance of training through observation using trained mothers. This method provides a viable alternative to conventional training methods for working dogs.
The importance of this third period has also been found in other species. Nyman (1967) showed that the problem–solving abilities in rats can be related to their early experiences and that subsequent experiences in maturity do not compensate for inadequate earlier experiences. Similar findings show that early deprivation or isolation in phylogenetically diverse species has been reported using fish (Shaw, 1962), rats (Griffiths, 1961; Moyer and Korn, 1965) and chickens (Padilla, 1935; Siegel and Siegel, 1964; Ratner, 1965). Other studies by Fox (1972) showed that deprivation or isolation in puppies can be associated with a wide variety of behavioral and neurological defects or abnormalities later in life. The benefits of enhanced experiences (enrichment) have been used in the puppy fostering programs for guide dogs, therapy, SAR and military working dogs. Puppy fostering programs typically begin when pups are 8-16 weeks of age. They are removed from their litter and placed with a family who will raise them until they are 6-9 months of age. During this time frame, emphasis is placed on the exposure to novel situations away from their foster home. The variable nature of changing experiences seems to prepare them for the more difficult tasks they will be expected to perform when they become mature.
CONCLUSION
During the first year of life three important periods of development have been identified in canines. Each period has a time frame that can be used to provide certain kinds of stimulation in order to improve later development and performance. Many specific kinds of experiences and stimulations have been identified that contribute in a cumulative way to each stage of development. The positive sum of these stimulations and experiences seem to have a positive effect upon the individual’s development and later behavior. The importance of these three periods have also been confirmed by the breeders of purebred show dogs, performance and companion dogs in addition to those who breed for therapy and guide dogs for the blind, SAR, police, TSA, military and the Home Land Defense. Breeders and owners of dogs can make improvements via nutrition and environmental experiences.
References:
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